By Liu Yu
William Empson was acknowledged as I. A. Richards' most brilliant student at Magdalene College, Cambridge, during the mid-1920s, where he not only adapted but also deepened Richards' critical principles through a series of detailed close readings that spanned the history of English poetry. At just 24, he published Seven Types of Ambiguity, in which he explored the literary effects of ambiguity, delving into its intricate nuances and semantic possibilities.
He skillfully leveraged a notable quotation from Practical Criticism, which states that "the hope of a new technique in discussion lies in this: that the study of the ambiguities of one term assists in the elucidation of another." This insight highlighted how tracing the meanings of terms like "sentimentality", "truth", and "sincerity" could illuminate our understanding of other words across various topics. Empson's work illustrated that ambiguity is systematic, with the different senses of a word closely related, akin to the aspects of a building. Seven Types thus became emblematic of the meticulous attention to language and rigorous analysis of literary effects that defined what would be known as Cambridge Criticism-an influential critical style that significantly elevated the study of literature, particularly early modern and modernist poetry, to impressive new heights.
The term "close reading" has become a familiar phrase in contemporary discourse, demanding a rigorous engagement with texts that stands in stark contrast to the more casual, distant, or offhand forms of appreciation and critique often found in literary discussions. Its insatiable appetite for detail frequently unveils unexpected insights, illuminating the complexities of language and meaning. Furthermore, its purpose extends beyond merely serving as a companion to historical knowledge; it can be argued that it provides its form of historical insight, as the behavior of words is intricately woven into the fabric of social life.
As close reading solidified its status as a vital tool within the New Criticism movement, it gradually assumed a somewhat paradoxical identity. In the minds of its critics, and sometimes even among its supporters, it began to suggest an intense focus on the text that risked excluding all contextual considerations, as if the words in literary works existed in a completely independent, self-contained, and exclusive realm. This notion fosters a hazy interaction between text and context, where the intricate dance of meaning becomes both illuminated and obscured, inviting readers to navigate the delicate balance between the words on the page and their broader implications.
According to William Empson, the meaning of each image or specific word in a poem is shaped by context and the reader's subjectivity, leading to inherent ambiguities. The connotation of a particular image and the author's intended effect are often distinct. For instance, when Shakespeare uses the image of "a dilapidated church," he is likely more focused on aesthetic values than on the historical struggles of Protestantism. Yet, such intense imagery can also embody a kind of violent aesthetics, as illustrated by the climactic destruction in Yukio Mishima's Kinkakuji Temple.
When examining a poem, it's essential to consider the reader's cultural background and imaginative capacity. Readers interpret images based on their own experiences, which can lead to ambiguity. Thus, it's crucial to explore both the author's intended message and the reader's interpretation.
For my analysis, I chose Percy Bysshe Shelley's To a Skylark.
Hail to thee, blithe Spirit!
Bird thou never wert,
That from Heaven, or near it,
Pourest thy full heart
In profuse strains of unpremeditated art.
This poem exemplifies a perfect fusion of phonological and imagistic beauty. Shelley employs an "ababb" rhyme scheme throughout. For instance, "Spirit" and "near it" rhyme, as do "wert" and "heart," creating a melodic repetition that captivates the reader.
The subject "Bird" is carefully crafted. Shelley uses metaphor to liken the skylark to an elf, embodying the lightness and spirituality of this small creature. Just like "Tinker Bell," this comparison effectively highlights the ethereal qualities of the skylark. Secondly, Shelley positions "Bird" at the beginning of the line in an inverted structure. While this might seem unconventional, it becomes reasonable as the skylark transforms into an elf. This "ambiguity of inversion" enhances the poem's context.
Shelley also employs personification, attributing human qualities to the skylark. In the opening line, "Hail to thee," the skylark is depicted as a sentient being capable of understanding human praise, creating a resonance between Shelley and the skylark.
Poets often utilize various phonetic techniques to underscore the deeper meanings of their work. This interplay complements the aesthetic beauty and lively characteristics of the skylark celebrated by Shelley, resulting in a harmonious blend of phonological and connotative beauty.
Liu Yu is the lead editor of the cultural commentary "A Thousand Hamlets."
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